In "The English Language is My Enemy," Ossie Davis argues that English is inherently racist by presenting the reader with two lists of synonyms for the words white and black. The lists present clearly divergent sets of meanings associated with the two words. White is associated with purity, cleanliness, and goodness. Black is associated with evil, dirt, and death. The differences in meaning suggest to Davis that the language is inherently biased against blacks. While the differences in meaning are undeniable, I suggest that the differences are due to ability of humans to think metaphorically, not racism necessarily.
EVIDENCE: FACTS ABOUT HUMAN REACTIONS TO THE DARK.
The suicide rate in the Scandinavian countries is comparatively higher than the rate in the rest of the world and highest in winter. Horror films are typically set at night; think of Halloween and Night of the Living Dead to name just two examples. In fact, Freddie, a popular horror villain of late, most often appears to people at night, while they dream.These two different facts share one thing in common — darkness. Being as far north as they are (right on the Arctic Circle), the countries of Sweden, Norway, and Finland can experience up to twenty hours of darkness each day in midwinter. Seasonal depression is a common illness there, and its effects on the individual's will to survive can be catastrophic. However, the Scandinavian nations are not unusual in this regard: seasonal depression is common in all latitudes that experience long winter nights, and the fear of the dark is a common human trait, as parents of toddlers all around the world will readily attest.
These two facts support a single generalization about us humans generally and Western (European-oriented) culture particularly: darkness represents the UNKNOWN while light (and vision) represents KNOWLEDGE. In other words, the psychology and thought of most Westerners portray darkness as a metaphor for the unknown (therefore the dangerous) and light as a metaphor for the known. A metaphor, remember, is the process of employing one concept to represent another concept.
SECOND SET OF EVIDENCE: THE METAPHORIC MEANINGS ASSOCIATED WITH LIGHT AND DARK
.In fact, those two metaphors of light and dark organize (and possibly control) the way we Westerners think about knowledge or the lack of it. Our language (and other European languages as well) is filled with expressions that show how our thinking about knowledge is organized by those two metaphors of light (and vision) versus darkness. Consider the following examples of the LIGHT (AND VISION) IS KNOWING metaphor:
I see what you're saying.
It looks different from my point of view.What is your outlook on that?
I view it differently.
I've got the whole picture.
That's an insightful idea.
She is a brilliant woman.
The argument was clear.
Could you elucidate on that?
It's a transparent argument.
Similarly, consider these few examples of the DARKNESS IS IGNORANCE (literally a 'lack of knowledge') metaphor:
It was a murky discussion.
The discussion was opaque.
I didn't follow his thinking;
I'm still in the dark.
Let's see if we can't throw a little light on the subject.
What those expressions teach us is that we Westerners metaphorically link thought with light, ignorance (and fear) with dark.
OBJECTION: NOTE THE ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF VALIDITY OF THE OPPOSITION'S PERSPECTIVE.
Granted, Davis might feel that I am evading his point by shifting the attention from the reality of racist language to some esoteric discussion of the psychology underlying some metaphors in the English language. Davis could even point out that many racist words are related to color and vision. The notorious n word has its origins in the Spanish word for black.I will grant too that the language may indeed be inherently racist (and sexist).
It does seem that the language has far more derogatory terms for minority groups and women than for the majority group and men. Modesty forbids me from writing examples here, but a simple "thought experiment" will illustrate my point: make a mental list of all the words that are deliberately insulting to blacks, or women, or any other minority group. Make a similar list of derogatory words aimed at whites or men. I find that the lists are unequally long: there are far more derogatory words against any minority group. To my mind, that is stronger evidence to suggest that the language may have an inherent bias.
REBUTTAL:
Yet the fact of the matter is that racist and sexist language has more to do with unequal power than it has to do with the meanings associated with words like white and black. For example, if you want to find out whose manner of speech is the most admired and is the prestige dialect within a country, simply find out which social group has the highest prestige in that country. There is a direct correlation between social prestige and linguistic prestige.
So when Ossie Davis looks at the enormous number of unfavorable synonyms associated with the word darkness and concludes that "The English Language is My Enemy!" I do not explain that fact on the inherent racism that Davis believes pervades our thoughts. To me, that explanation of racism is both too simple and unjustified when one looks at the language in a larger perspective. Instead, I see the enormous number of unfavorable synonyms as a result of the way our minds organize our feelings about issues like KNOWLEDGE & IGNORANCE and KNOWN & UNKNOWN (the unknown is also dangerous).
CONCLUSION
However, do not misread me. Racism is a real issue in both society and language. One need only read the newspapers to learn of the growing numbers of hate crimes. One need only listen to the media to hear racial and ethnic slurs used thoughtlessly. Although Davis and I disagree about the origins of the unfavorable meanings associated with the synonyms for words referring to darkness, we do agree on an even more important issue: we must learn to control our minds and our tongues if we ever wish to control our destiny.
Exploring the process of writing an effective argument, a literary analysis, and a balanced research paper.
Back To Home Page!
English 170 Student Resources
- 1984 (1)
- Argumentative Essay (7)
- Common Writing Mistakes (1)
- Critical Thinking (3)
- Grammar and Spelling Review (1)
- Literary Analysis (6)
- Midterm Review (1)
- Research Paper (8)
- Welcome (1)
Argumentative Essay Basics
Quite unlike the ordinary meaning of the word, argument as a term in rhetoric refers to the process of reasoning by advancing proof. Indeed, academic argument can seem dispassionate if one expects that all argument is done with raised voices and heated tempers. Though academic argument often does grow very acrimonious, it is more often the product of careful research and thoughtful consideration of all the facts that one can acquire about the issue. For centuries therefore rhetoricians advocated the writing of an argumentative essay as a means of learning how to think.
Argument demands that the writer examine a belief by testing the strength of the reasons for holding such a belief. Argument of this kind forms a "dialectical structure," a dialog, within the essay itself. In this dialog, the writer explores several sides of the issue under consideration with the readers in an attempt to demonstrate why one perspective is the most enlightened. The writer's analysis of the issues (his/her evaluations of the claims, evidence, assumptions, hidden arguments, and inherent contradictions) leads the writer to champion one perspective of the subject at hand, even though reasonable, thoughtful, intelligent people advocate different perspectives.
In short, the writer of an argument essay has several goals: the primary goals is to persuade and move the audience to accept his/her position on an issue, but that is often a very difficult challenge. A secondary, and more modest goal, is for the writer to articulate why s/he chooses the stance that s/he does on an issue. The secondary goal recognizes the fact that to persuade is a difficult objective but that at least the writer can explain his/her reasoning behind his/her position.Writing Guidelines
For those reasons, many rhetoricians describe the argument as a dialog, set in writing, between the writer and the readers. In this dialog, the writer introduces his/her subject, makes his/her claim, discusses any necessary background information, and then presents the evidence for the position and in rebuttal to other positions.
Writers use different patterns to organize their thoughts as they compose the argument. Essentially, the two most common patters of development are the "clustering" and the "alternating" patterns of presenting evidence. In the clustering pattern, the writer collects the evidence in one place, the objections in another section, and the rebuttal in a third section. In the alternating pattern, the writer shifts between evidence, objection, and rebuttal for each separate piece of evidence before moving to the next piece of evidence.
Argument vs. Opinion
The single most common misunderstanding in composing an argument is to assume that there is no difference between an argument and an opinion. "But it's all opinion!" we might rightly point out, and, yes, it is true that all claims start out as opinions. (Columbus was thought mad for suggesting that the world was round, remember. The ancients argued that the earth was the center of the universe.) At first glance, it may seem that argumentative essays are "merely" asking you to write your opinion, since there may be no single "correct" way to answer the crucial questions raised by controversial subjects.
The crucial difference is that an argument should present a claim (an opinion) supported by reasoning and evidence, which persuades your reader that the thesis your paper advances is a valid one. An opinion is an assertion that is not supported by logic or evidence.
Clustering Patternof Development
Statement and brief explanation of the question or problem, justifying its importance if necessary.
Statement of the position you are advocating — the claim.
The evidence (reasons) for the position are presented next.The writer adds as much evidence as s/he can muster to support the validity of his/her point of view.The writer often organizes the evidence to provide for the greatest impact on the reader.
Objection to this evidence follow.The writer presents the opposing points of view and the evidence/reasoning behind the other perspectives.The writer often acknowledges the validity of other viewpoints and weaknesses in his/her own perspective. This can actually help the writer gain ethical appeal from the readers.Replies to these objections begin.The writer uses evidence and reasoning to explain why the opposition's perspective is not valid.The writer may even acknowledge that the opposition's perspective is valid but is somehow unacceptable and therefore less attractive than his/her position on the issue.
Conclusion: assess the original position in light of presented evidence and rebuttals.
Alternating Pattern of Development
Statement and brief explanation of the question or problem, justifying its importance if necessary.
Statement of the position you are advocating — the claim.
First evidence (reason) for the position.
Objection to this evidence.
Reply to this objection.
Continued objections and replies until all material related to this evidence is exhausted.
Second evidence for the position.
Objection to this second piece of evidence.
Reply to this objection.
Continued objection and replying until all material related to this evidence is exhausted.
Continuing evidence for the position, until all the evidence has been presented and tested,followed by objections andreplies until all material is exhausted.
Conclusion: assess the original position in light of presented evidence and rebuttals
Daniel Kies
Professor, English & Linguistics
College of DuPage
425 Fawell Boulevard
Glen Ellyn, Illinois 60137-6599
Web site: http://papyr.com
The HyperTextBooks: http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks
The HyperTextBooks' FAQs: http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/faq.htm
Faculty pages: http://www.cod.edu/people/faculty/KiesDan
Phone: 630-942-2415 Office: IC 2085D
Argument demands that the writer examine a belief by testing the strength of the reasons for holding such a belief. Argument of this kind forms a "dialectical structure," a dialog, within the essay itself. In this dialog, the writer explores several sides of the issue under consideration with the readers in an attempt to demonstrate why one perspective is the most enlightened. The writer's analysis of the issues (his/her evaluations of the claims, evidence, assumptions, hidden arguments, and inherent contradictions) leads the writer to champion one perspective of the subject at hand, even though reasonable, thoughtful, intelligent people advocate different perspectives.
In short, the writer of an argument essay has several goals: the primary goals is to persuade and move the audience to accept his/her position on an issue, but that is often a very difficult challenge. A secondary, and more modest goal, is for the writer to articulate why s/he chooses the stance that s/he does on an issue. The secondary goal recognizes the fact that to persuade is a difficult objective but that at least the writer can explain his/her reasoning behind his/her position.Writing Guidelines
For those reasons, many rhetoricians describe the argument as a dialog, set in writing, between the writer and the readers. In this dialog, the writer introduces his/her subject, makes his/her claim, discusses any necessary background information, and then presents the evidence for the position and in rebuttal to other positions.
Writers use different patterns to organize their thoughts as they compose the argument. Essentially, the two most common patters of development are the "clustering" and the "alternating" patterns of presenting evidence. In the clustering pattern, the writer collects the evidence in one place, the objections in another section, and the rebuttal in a third section. In the alternating pattern, the writer shifts between evidence, objection, and rebuttal for each separate piece of evidence before moving to the next piece of evidence.
Argument vs. Opinion
The single most common misunderstanding in composing an argument is to assume that there is no difference between an argument and an opinion. "But it's all opinion!" we might rightly point out, and, yes, it is true that all claims start out as opinions. (Columbus was thought mad for suggesting that the world was round, remember. The ancients argued that the earth was the center of the universe.) At first glance, it may seem that argumentative essays are "merely" asking you to write your opinion, since there may be no single "correct" way to answer the crucial questions raised by controversial subjects.
The crucial difference is that an argument should present a claim (an opinion) supported by reasoning and evidence, which persuades your reader that the thesis your paper advances is a valid one. An opinion is an assertion that is not supported by logic or evidence.
Clustering Patternof Development
Statement and brief explanation of the question or problem, justifying its importance if necessary.
Statement of the position you are advocating — the claim.
The evidence (reasons) for the position are presented next.The writer adds as much evidence as s/he can muster to support the validity of his/her point of view.The writer often organizes the evidence to provide for the greatest impact on the reader.
Objection to this evidence follow.The writer presents the opposing points of view and the evidence/reasoning behind the other perspectives.The writer often acknowledges the validity of other viewpoints and weaknesses in his/her own perspective. This can actually help the writer gain ethical appeal from the readers.Replies to these objections begin.The writer uses evidence and reasoning to explain why the opposition's perspective is not valid.The writer may even acknowledge that the opposition's perspective is valid but is somehow unacceptable and therefore less attractive than his/her position on the issue.
Conclusion: assess the original position in light of presented evidence and rebuttals.
Alternating Pattern of Development
Statement and brief explanation of the question or problem, justifying its importance if necessary.
Statement of the position you are advocating — the claim.
First evidence (reason) for the position.
Objection to this evidence.
Reply to this objection.
Continued objections and replies until all material related to this evidence is exhausted.
Second evidence for the position.
Objection to this second piece of evidence.
Reply to this objection.
Continued objection and replying until all material related to this evidence is exhausted.
Continuing evidence for the position, until all the evidence has been presented and tested,followed by objections andreplies until all material is exhausted.
Conclusion: assess the original position in light of presented evidence and rebuttals
Daniel Kies
Professor, English & Linguistics
College of DuPage
425 Fawell Boulevard
Glen Ellyn, Illinois 60137-6599
Web site: http://papyr.com
The HyperTextBooks: http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks
The HyperTextBooks' FAQs: http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/faq.htm
Faculty pages: http://www.cod.edu/people/faculty/KiesDan
Phone: 630-942-2415 Office: IC 2085D
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)